|
accredited
Announcements
Catalog
Table of Contents
iGen'l.
Info
iCalendar
iREGISTRATION
FORM
iSites
iAlvarado
AC Transit
iSerra
iDirectory
iContact
Us
iPrograms
iParent
Resources
iTyping
Test
Reservations
(Alvarado)
wccusd only
WASC Report
Newsletters
| |
 Critical Issue: Addressing
the Literacy Needs of Emergent and Early Readers
 ISSUE: Literacy development
begins in the very early stages of childhood, even though the activities of
young children may not seem related to reading and writing. Early behaviors
such as "reading" from pictures and "writing" with scribbles
are examples of emergent literacy and are an
important part of children's literacy development. With the support of parents,
caregivers, early childhood educators, and teachers, as well as exposure to
a literacy-rich environment, children successfully progress from emergent to
conventional reading. The theoretical and research-based knowledge of child
development in general and of literacy development in particular provides an
understanding of the literacy acquisition of young children and suggests strategies
that can help children become successful, confident readers and writers.
Overview | Goals | Action
Options | Pitfalls | Different Viewpoints
| Cases | Contacts | References
 OVERVIEW: In 1966, New Zealand
researcher Marie Clay introduced the term emergent literacy to describe
the behaviors seen in young children when they use books and writing materials
to imitate reading and writing activities, even though the children cannot actually
read and write in the conventional sense (Ramsburg, 1998). In the three decades
since Clay's introduction, an extensive body of research has expanded the understanding
of emergent literacy. According to current research, children's literacy development
begins long before children start formal instruction in elementary school (Allington
& Cunningham, 1996; Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999; Clay, 1991; Hall &
Moats, 1999; Holdaway, 1979; Teale & Sulzby, 1986). This literacy development
is nourished by social interactions with caring adults and exposure to literacy
materials, such as children's storybooks (Sulzby, 1991). It proceeds along a
continuum, and children acquire literacy skills in a variety of ways and at
different ages (Emergent Literacy Project, n.d.; McGee & Richgels, 1996;
Ramsburg, 1998; Strickland & Morrow, 1988). Children's skills in reading
and writing develop at the same time and are interrelated rather than sequential
(Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Educators can promote children's understanding of
reading and writing by helping them build literacy knowledge and skills through
the use of engaged learning activities.
Children's growth from emergent to conventional literacy is influenced
by their continuing literacy development, their understanding of literacy
concepts, and the efforts of parents, caregivers, and teachers to promote
literacy.
Children's Literacy Development
From as early as the first months through the
second year of life, children's experiences with oral
language development and literacy begin to build a foundation for
later reading success (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999; Strickland &
Morrow, 1988; Weaver, 1988). From 2 to 3 years
of age, children begin to produce understandable speech in response
to books and the written marks they create.
From 3 through 4 years of age, children show
rapid growth in literacy. They begin to "read" their favorite books
by themselves, focusing mostly on reenacting the story from the pictures. Eventually,
they progress from telling about each picture individually to weaving a story
from picture to picture using language that sounds like reading or written language
(Holdaway, 1979; International Reading Association & National Association
for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Sulzby, 1991). At this time, children
also experiment with writing by forming scribbles, letter-like forms, and random
strings of letters (Barclay, 1991; Clay, 1975; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998;
McGee & Richgels, 1996). They also begin to use "mock handwriting"
(Clay, 1975) or wavy scribbles (Sulzby, 1985b) to imitate adult cursive writing.
Letter-like forms or "mock letters" (Clay, 1975) are the young child’s
attempt to form alphabetic letters; these forms of writing eventually will develop
into standard letters (Barclay, 1991). When using various forms of writing,
children maintain their intention to create meaning and will often "read"
their printed messages using language that sounds like reading (Clay, 1975;
McGee & Richgels, 1996; Sulzby, 1985b).
Around age 5, children enter school and begin receiving formal literacy instruction.
Most children at the kindergarten level are
considered to be emergent readers. They continue to make rapid
growth in literacy skills if they are exposed to literacy-rich environments
(Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999). Children at this age continue to "read"
from books they’ve heard repeatedly. Gradually, these readings demonstrate the
intonation patterns of the adult reader and language used in the book. Emergent
readers are just beginning to control early reading strategies such as directionality,
word-by-word matching, and concepts
of print. They use pictures to support reading and rely heavily on their
knowledge of language (Holdaway, 1979; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin,
1998).
Children's writing also develops rapidly during the kindergarten year. Just
as children’s reading acquisition does not occur in a linear path, children’s
writing skills also reflect an overlapping development. Children continue to
use the variety of writing forms developed earlier, but they typically add random
letter strings to their repertoire; in effect, they create strings of letters
for their written messages without regard for the sounds represented by the
letters (Sulzby, 1989, 1992). At this age, children plan their writing and are
able to discuss their plans with others. If allowed, they begin to use invented
spelling (phonetic spelling). Invented spelling typically represents the
most dominant sounds in a word, such as the beginning and ending sounds (Gentry,
1982; McGee & Richgels, 1996; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Weaver,
1988). Even though children begin applying phonetic knowledge to create invented
spellings, there is a lapse in time before they use phonetic clues to read what
they write. Often children will try to recall what has been written or will
use a picture created with the text to reread instead of using the letter clues
(Kamberelis & Sulzby, 1988; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). It is interesting
to note that once children start to use invented spelling, they do not use it
equally for all writing tasks. In a study on emergent
writing, Sulzby, Barnhart, and Hieshima (1989) observed children employing
writing forms typical of earlier literacy development when asked to engage in
more extended writing tasks. The children typically used invented spelling to
represent single words or short phrases, but they reverted to less mature forms
of writing when required to create more complex pieces.
 Tracy
van Peeren, a kindergarten teacher at Greenwood Elementary School in St. Clair
Shores, Michigan, describes the use of developmentally appropriate literacy
activities in the kindergarten classroom [560 k audio file]. Excerpted from
a videotaped interview with Tracy van Peeren (North Central Regional Educational
Laboratory, 1999). A text transcript is available.
At some point during the kindergarten or first grade year, most children
move from emergent literacy into conventional
literacy. This process is gradual. Although all aspects of conventional
literacy are developing during the emergent period, they become recognizable
in conventional literacy. Educators working with young children must keep
in mind that there is no prescribed grade level for reaching conventional
literacy. Emergent literacy and conventional literacy "are not discrete
stages but a continuum of learning that varies with the complexity of each
individual’s development," states Pinnell (1996b, p. 177). As children
are moving into conventional literacy, they pass through different periods
of development in their efforts to become successful readers, just as they
did at the emergent level. Many traditional researchers use the terms early
reader, transitional reader, and fluent reader to describe
these periods of literacy growth.
Most children at the first grade level are
or will become early readers. They know how to use early reading strategies
and can read appropriately selected text independently after a story introduction
given by a teacher (Pinnell, 1996b). Early readers begin to attend to print
and apply the phonetic value (International
Reading Association & National Association for the Education of Young Children,
1998; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998) of letters in order to read. They commonly
look at beginning and ending letters in order to decode unfamiliar words (Clay,
1991; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Children in this early
reading period also begin to attend to more than one source for cues while reading.
Attention is paid to meaning cues, grammatical cues, and prior knowledge on
a limited basis (Clay, 1991; Holdaway, 1979; International Reading Association
& National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Pinnell,
1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). These children are able to recognize
a small number of words on sight. In writing, children typically progress through
five stages of invented spelling, ranging from
writing the initial consonant sound of a word to using conventional spelling.
Most children at the second grade level are
transitional readers. They are able to read unknown text with more independence
than can early readers. Transitional readers use meaning, grammatical, and letter
cues more fully. They recognize a large number of frequently used words on sight
and use pictures in a limited way while reading (Clay, 1991; International Reading
Association & National Association for the Education of Young Children,
1998; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Some children continue
to use phonetic or invented spelling, but the spelling is easily readable. Sometime
during the development from early reader into transitional reader, children’s
writing also begins to demonstrate characteristics of the transitional speller
(Gentry, 1982; McGee & Richgels, 1996; Weaver, 1988). Transitional spellers
are able to apply spelling rules, patterns, and a variety of other strategies
for putting words on paper (Gentry, 1982; Weaver, 1988).
Children at the third grade level typically
are fluent readers. They use all sources of information flexibly to read
a variety of unknown texts. Fluent readers are able to read for meaning with
less attention to decoding and can independently
solve problems encountered in the text (Clay, 1991; International Reading Association
& National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Pinnell,
1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Typically, writing has developed into
mostly conventional spelling; children may employ transitional and phonetic
spellings to spell infrequently used words or words that are challenging to
the child. Children are able to write expressively in many different forms using
rich vocabulary and more complex sentences. They often revise and edit their
own work (International Reading Association & National Association for the
Education of Young Children, 1998). If the reading materials are appropriately
challenging, children's fluency (which includes automatic word recognition,
rapid decoding, and checking for meaning) continues to increase.
Children's Concepts of Literacy
In addition to acknowledging children's developmental acquisition of
decoding, comprehension, and writing skills, emergent literacy research
emphasizes the changes that occur in children's understanding of literacy
concepts. "The transition to real reading involves changes not only
in composition of skills but also in concepts about the nature of literacy,"
note Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998). As children have more experience
with reading and writing, their understanding of the concepts
of reading and writing expand and grow to fit their new knowledge.
For instance, Sulzby (1985a) describes categories
of children's storybook reading from emergent through conventional reading.
She notes that children eventually move from pointing and labeling pictures
in a book, to "reading" a story through the illustrations, to telling
the story using book language, and finally to reading conventionally using the
text of a story.
An important transition is when children’s "reading" of stories
changes from sounding like oral language to sounding like written language.
This transition demonstrates a change in ideas from thinking of reading
as spoken words to understanding that reading is recreated from written
text that has special wordings (McGee & Richgels, 1996; Sulzby,
1991). A similar shift in language can be observed in children’s story
dictation and in the rereading of their emergent writing (Sulzby, Barnhart,
& Hieshima, 1989).
The young child’s concept of words changes as the child's literacy development
evolves. Ferreiro (1986), for example, notes that young children often
think words should show some figural resemblance to their meaning; later,
children think words need a minimum number of symbols; still later, they
think words need varied letters. In a study by Pick, Unze, Brownell, Drozdal,
and Hopmann (1978), children as young as 3 years old were asked to sort
word cards into piles of "words" and "not words." The
children put all single-letter and two-letter cards into the "not
words" pile and cards of three or more letters into the "words"
pile. Their notion of words was a string of at least three letters. In
contrast, first graders put all word cards they could read--regardless
of length--into the "words" pile, and all word cards they did
not recognize into the "not words" pile. The first graders' concept
of words was that words can have any number of letters but must be recognizable
and meaningful to the reader.
These studies indicate that children's ideas about words are quite different
from adults' concepts of words. "Because children construct their own knowledge,
this knowledge does not come fully developed and is often quite different from
that of an adult. Thus, there are differences between how an adult understands
reading and writing and how a child understands reading and writing," note
McGee and Richgels (1996, p. 7). As children progress into conventional literacy,
however, their concepts of literacy gradually change toward the more conventional
adult conceptualizations.
Efforts to Promote Children's Literacy Development
Because reading and writing are thinking processes (Allington &
Cunningham, 1996; McGee & Richgels, 1996), emergent literacy also must
be considered in the context of children's developing cognitive
skills. The theories of both Piaget and
Vygotsky are relevant to the discussion of emergent literacy and
help explain the cognitive concepts formed by young learners. Emergent
literacy is partly discovered; children construct their own ideas about
literacy as they actively participate in literacy activities (Piaget).
Emergent literacy also is based on behaviors modeled and supported by adults
(Vygotsky) that encourage children to change and refine their own ideas
to more closely match conventional notions. One example of this interface
between literacy acquisition and literacy instruction is the child's development
of phonemic awareness (awareness that
spoken words are made with individual sounds). By playing with language,
such as rhyming or substituting sounds in words, some children develop
a degree of phonemic awareness on their own, while other children require
instruction from adults. Instruction may enable some children to use metacognition
(the process of thinking about and regulating one's own learning) to achieve
a higher level of phonemic awareness.
 David
Kerbow, a researcher for the Center for School Improvement at the University
of Chicago, discusses the development of phonemic awareness and the value of
reading aloud to children [784 k audio file]. Excerpted from a videotaped
interview with David Kerbow (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory,
1999). A text transcript is available.
In their literacy development, children progress through several categories
of phonological skills. The earliest and easiest tasks involve rhyming,
identifying words that rhyme, and thinking of rhyming words. Intermediate tasks
involve the blending of phonemes (for
example, /i/ and /n/ = in) and syllable splitting (separating the first phoneme
of a word from the ending sound: /b/ /at/). The most difficult tasks involve
the complete segmentation of phonemes and manipulation of them to form new words
(Griffith & Olson, 1992; Hall & Moats, 1999).
Children's parents, caregivers, and early childhood educators play an important
role in ensuring that children successfully progress in their literacy development.
Children's literacy efforts are best supported by adults’ interactions with
children through reading aloud and conversation and by children’s social interactions
with each other (McGee & Richgels, 1996). It is imperative that caregivers
and educators in all settings are knowledgeable about emergent literacy and
make a concerted effort to ensure that children experience literacy-rich environments
to support their development into conventional literacy.
Of utmost importance is reading aloud to children and providing opportunities
for them to discuss the stories that they hear (Burns, Griffin, & Snow,
1999). Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, and Wilkinson (1985) state, "The single
most important activity for building the knowledge required for eventual success
in reading is reading aloud to children. This is especially so during the preschool
years" (p. 23). Reading aloud to children helps them develop in four areas
that are important to formal reading instruction: oral
language, cognitive skills, concepts
of print, and phonemic awareness. Development
of these skills provides a strong foundation to support literacy development
during the early school years (Allington & Cunningham, 1996; Hall &
Moats, 1999; Holdaway, 1979).
Children who are read to develop background knowledge about a range
of topics and build a large vocabulary, which assists in later reading
comprehension and development of reading strategies. They become familiar
with rich language patterns and gain an understanding of what written language
sounds like. Reading aloud to children helps them associate reading with
pleasure and encourages them to seek out opportunities to read on their
own. Children also become familiar with the reading process by watching
how others read, and they develop an understanding of story structure.
Repeated readings of favorite stories allow children an informal opportunity
to gradually develop a more elaborate understanding of these concepts.
By revisiting stories many times, children focus on unique features of
a story or text and reinforce previous understandings. In addition, rereadings
enable children to read emergently (Sulzby, 1985b; Sulzby, Buhle, &
Kaiser, 1999).
All children need to have high-quality children's
books as a part of their daily experience (Burns, Griffin, & Snow,
1999). Storytime can include a variety of reading materials, including "books
that positively reflect children’s identity, home language, and culture"
(International Reading Association & National Association for the Education
of Young Children, 1998, p. 9). Children benefit from having access to a wide
range of literacy materials, such as books, magazines,
newspapers, and a variety of writing materials. The library media specialist
at school or the children’s librarian at the public library can help identify
a variety of materials, including picture books, rhyming books, alphabet books,
short stories, and chapter books.
Literacy-rich environments, both at home and at school, are important in promoting
literacy and preventing reading difficulties. In literacy-rich home environments,
parents and caregivers provide children with occasions for daily reading, extended
discourse (extensive talking or writing), language
play, experimentation with literacy materials, book talk (discussion
of characters, action, and plot), and dramatic play
(Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999; International Reading
Association & National Association for the Education of Young Children,
1998). In literacy-rich classrooms, teachers
incorporate the characteristics of literacy-rich home environments, but they
also use grouping for learning,
developmentally appropriate
practices, and literacy routines; in addition, they have classroom designs
that continue to encourage reading and writing (McGee & Richgels, 1996)
through learning centers
and engaged learning activities. In their joint position statement, Learning
to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children,
the International Reading Association and the National Association for the Education
of Young Children (1998) confirm that the first eight years of a child's life
are the most important years for literacy development and that developmentally
appropriate practices at home and at school are crucial for ensuring that children
become successful readers.
David
Kerbow, a researcher for the Center for School Improvement at the University
of Chicago, notes that developmentally appropriate literacy activities can function
at different levels and are valuable and applicable to all children in a classroom
[364 k audio file]. Excerpted from a videotaped interview with David Kerbow
(North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1999). A text
transcript is available.
Some children, however, enter elementary school without a strong background
in literacy. The children most at risk of developing reading problems are those
who begin school with low language skills, less phonemic awareness and letter
knowledge, and less familiarity with literacy tasks and underlying purposes
(Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999). Research in the areas of family
risk factors that contribute to children's reading difficulties, adult-child
interactions during story reading, and language
development delays verifies that successes or struggles with reading
can be observed very early in a child's life. To help children develop
emergent skills and overcome barriers to literacy, teachers may need to take
special efforts in working with children individually and in offering support
and encouragement to parents and caregivers for participating in their children's
literacy development. Schools also can use a wide variety of literacy
intervention programs to minimize identified risk factors and support children
in their literacy development.
Special consideration can be given to children who do not have strong skills
in oral English. According to Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998), non-English-speaking
children need adequate preparation before they are taught to read in English.
The ability to speak English provides the foundation for learning alphabetic
principles, the structure of the language, and the content of the material they
are reading. If children cannot speak English, they can be taught to read and
write in their own language while becoming proficient in English. If that is
not possible, "the initial instructional priority should be developing
the children's oral proficiency in English" (Snow, Burns, & Griffin,
1998, p. 325). Formal reading instruction in English can be started after the
child is adequately proficient in oral English.
It is imperative that teachers who work with young children either in preschool
or primary environments are continually provided opportunities to learn more
about child development, especially as it relates to literacy acquisition (Burns,
Griffin, & Snow, 1999; International Reading Association & National
Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998). Preservice education
and later professional development can provide the research base as well as
instruction on how to apply literacy research to classroom practice (Burns,
Griffin, & Snow, 1999). By continually expanding their knowledge base, teachers
will be better prepared to select appropriate instructional strategies, interventions,
and materials to ensure that they are meeting
the diverse needs of young children.
Screening and assessment are crucial tools for determining children’s literacy
needs. Screening provides educators a quick look at children’s skills and development
in specific areas prior to beginning reading instruction, while assessment provides
ongoing feedback about children’s literacy progress and growth. Both screening
and ongoing assessment can help teachers identify children who are developing
atypically and are in need of intervention. The earlier children receive this
intervention, the better. During kindergarten and first grade, children can
be screened for phonemic awareness, alphabetic knowledge, and an understanding
of basic language concepts (Texas Education Agency, 1997a). Throughout kindergarten
and the primary grades, teachers can use a full continuum of assessment options,
ranging from performance-based assessment to standardized testing. The use of
performance-based assessments (such as observational records of reading and
writing, developmental benchmarks, and portfolios)
can be used to inform daily teaching (Allington & Cunningham, 1996; Burns,
Griffin, & Snow, 1999; International Reading Association & National
Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Slegers, 1996). End-of-year
assessments inform parents and educators of children's literacy progress and
assist in planning for the following school year (Texas Education Agency, 1997a).
Literacy development begins very early in a child’s life and forms a
foundation for the acquisition of conventional literacy. "Research
consistently demonstrates that the more children know about language and
literacy before they begin formal schooling, the better equipped they are
to succeed in reading," note Burns, Griffin, and Snow (1999, p. 8).
Parents, caregivers, and teachers need to ensure that young children are
exposed to literacy-rich environments and receive developmentally appropriate
literacy instruction. Such environments and experiences have a profound
effect on children's literacy development by providing opportunities and
encouragement for children to become successful readers.
 GOALS:
- Teachers and caregivers understand and support children’s emergent
literacy and, in later years, children's transition to conventional reading
and writing.
- Teachers, administrators, and specialists understand the developmental
nature of emergent literacy and early conventional literacy; they ensure
that the K-2 curriculum and instructional materials are appropriate.
- Parents are supported in sharing and exploring literacy with their
children.
- Homes, day care settings, and schools provide literacy-rich environments
for children.
- Home cultures and languages are used as literacy resources, and children
are read to from rich literature.
- The literacy program supports children’s social, emotional, aesthetic,
maturational, and cognitive needs.
- Children’s literacy development is supported through balanced reading
programs that incorporate quality literature, writing opportunities, development
of phonemic awareness, and alphabetic knowledge.
- Teachers and caregivers participate in long-term professional development
and learning forums in emergent literacy and early conventional literacy;
they recognize, support, and assess children's literacy skills.
 ACTION OPTIONS: Administrators,
teachers and early childhood educators, and parents and caregivers can take
the following steps to provide opportunities for children's literacy acquisition.
Administrators:
- Work with community groups and libraries to provide informational programs
for parents regarding the development of literacy skills in young children.
- Work with teachers to provide a developmentally appropriate curriculum
in reading and writing that is "challenging but attainable with sufficient
adult support" (International Reading Association & National Association
for the Education of Young Children, 1998, p. 8).
- Ensure that the library or resource center has extensive and varied
resources for younger students.
- Ensure that appropriate screenings and assessments are used to determine
intervention programs for children who are experiencing reading problems
and children who are at risk of developing reading problems.
- Support teachers in implementing developmentally appropriate literacy
practices in their classrooms.
- Provide teachers with ongoing professional development on topics such as
children's growth from emergent literacy to conventional literacy, literacy
instruction, and developmentally appropriate practice. (Refer to CIERA
links for various literacy and educational resources.)
Teachers and Early Childhood Educators:
- Use developmentally appropriate literacy practice that acknowledges
children’s development, interests, and literacy knowledge.
- Read to children daily and allow them to take turns "reading"
the material to each other.
- Use a wide range of literacy materials in
class. Allow children to experience a variety of children's books, magazines,
and newspapers.
- Take time to listen to children to determine their interests, language
skills, and areas of need.
- Use children's home cultures and languages as literacy resources.
- Provide multiple rereadings of stories for pleasure and exploration.
Invite children to join in the readings, honoring their emergent reading
behaviors.
- Encourage children to compose stories and informational articles in
emergent forms; provide opportunities for children to read, share, and
display their writing.
- Provide "writing experiences that allow the flexibility to use
nonconventional forms of writing at first (invented or phonetic spelling)
and over time move to conventional forms" (International Reading Association
& National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998, p.9).
- As children begin to read conventionally, provide balanced
reading instruction to teach both skills and meaning and to meet
the reading needs of individual children.
- Participate in professional development activities to increase understanding
of emergent literacy and appropriate teaching practices.
Parents and Caregivers:
- Read aloud to children. Share and explore books and other reading materials
with children.
- Talk with and listen to children to promote their oral language development.
- Encourage children to retell stories that have been read to them.
- Encourage children to draw pictures or "write" about the stories
they have listened to and to emergently "read" these stories.
- Provide children with a positive role model by taking time to read and write.
- Visit the library regularly with children. Children may enjoy having their
own library card.
- Take children to the "story hour," children's plays, and other
community activities.
- Take advantage of opportunities to learn and read about children’s development
and literacy acquisition.
 IMPLEMENTATION PITFALLS: Because
of the various demands of early childhood classrooms, teachers working with
young children sometimes find it difficult to match the method of teaching with
each child's level of literacy development and individual skills. Instructional
activities that are used before the child is ready will result in less-than-expected
progress. For example, if instruction focuses on isolated skills (such as word
recognition, one-to-one pointing and chanting, or sounding out nonsense words)
before a child has developed the prior concepts necessary for mastering these
skills, real understanding and learning cannot take place. To be successful
in their literacy acquisition, children need to grasp basic instruction before
they can add new skills. Early assessment, screening, and knowledge of children's
abilities help ensure that children receive appropriate and individualized instruction.
Traditional school-based literacy programs often assume that children’s literacy
concepts are sufficiently developed to match the adult notion of literacy. In
light of what is known about children’s developmental progression, this assumption
may or may not be true when children enter school. To ensure successful reading
experiences, instruction needs to be appropriate to the child’s development.
For example, instruction must take into consideration the child’s concept of
words. If a child thinks only nouns and verbs are words and rejects one- to
two-letter words (such as a, an, on, and of), drilling
on these words as sight vocabulary does not make sense. This idea is particularly
relevant in determining when to introduce conventional reading instruction.
Moving slightly ahead of development may work with 7- to 8-year-olds
but not with 3- to 4-year-olds.
Teachers may assume that very young children should be taught through
a conventional model of reading instead of an emergent model. They may
provide direct instruction to the class instead of taking time to determine
the appropriate instruction for each child. Teachers should encourage and
support the literacy development of each individual. If a child is not
able to apply the phonetic value or determine meaning independently, the
teachers' role is to guide the child through these learning processes and
ensure successful reading experiences.
When working with young children, teachers may focus on one literacy
component to the exclusion of others (for example, emphasizing phonics
to the exclusion of reading for learning and enjoyment). Learning to read
will be more successful for children if the various components are interwoven
into literacy instruction.
Teachers may be given reading tools and materials without long-term professional
development to ensure deep understanding of children's literacy development.
Professional development is important in helping teachers understand that appropriate
reading and writing skills should be taught to children at the appropriate times.
These skills must be presented in different ways to reach all children in the
classroom. Professional development also helps teachers assess children’s readiness
to learn new skills.
Differences in training of early childhood educators and K-8 educators have
resulted in widely varying programs and interpretations of emergent literacy.
Early childhood educators tend to focus on nurturing the social and emotional
needs of children and providing developmentally appropriate instruction. Teachers
trained for grades K-8, on the other hand, tend to be more focused on curriculum
and instructional strategies. Recent research indicates a trend toward a more
structured academic kindergarten (Slegers, 1996) in which the curriculum reflects
skills that have been moved down from first grade. As a result, teachers may
feel pressure to formally teach reading skills to children in kindergarten.
If these teachers keep in mind the different kinds of development their
students demonstrate, they will be able to provide appropriate instruction
for all students. Individualized instruction with a focus on continual progress
within a continuum of learning will meet the varying needs of children.
 DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW:
Although some early childhood educators provide activities that support
emergent literacy development, others interpret "developmentally appropriate"
to mean that reading and writing are academic skills that belong only in
programs for older children (Slegers, 1996).
Traditionally, children's literacy skills were compared with adults'
literacy skills, and reading and writing were viewed as difficult processes
for children to learn. "Children were considered knowledgeable about
literacy only when their reading and writing approximated adults' reading
and writing," states the Emergent Literacy Project (n.d.). "Children
who could identify written words without picture clues were considered
readers. Similarly, children who could spell words so that adults could
read them were considered writers. This definition of reading and writing
was based on what adults could do."
Some educators believe that children must reach a certain level of physical
and neurological maturation before they are ready for reading and writing. This
perspective, called reading readiness, "suggests that there is a
point in time when a child is ready to begin to learn to read and write"
(Emergent Literacy Project, n.d.) rather than a developmental continuum of reading
and writing acquisition. "It also assumes that physical and neurological
maturation alone prepare the child to take advantage of instruction in reading
and writing," note the International Reading Association and the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (1998, p. 2). They add, "The
readiness perspective implies that until children reach a certain stage of maturity,
all exposure to reading and writing, except perhaps being read stories, is a
waste of time or even potentially harmful" (p. 2). According to the reading
readiness viewpoint, conventional literacy skills should be taught in kindergarten
so children are ready for the first-grade curriculum when they enter first grade.
There are varying opinions on the strategies for teaching young children to
read and write. Some educators believe that instruction in conventional literacy
should be based on early, explicit, and intensive instruction in sound-letter
relationships to develop children's comprehension and decoding skills. Others
emphasize immersion in language and literature.
Before the concept of emergent literacy was introduced, it was believed that
children must learn to read before they could learn to write. Some educators
still believe that this approach is the best way to teach young children.
Some parents and educators think that schools should discourage the use of
invented spelling. They believe that invented spelling prevents children from
learning to spell correctly and affects their success in school and life.
 ILLUSTRATIVE CASES:
- Elizabeth Sulzby, professor of education at the University of Michigan in
Ann Arbor and principal investigator at the Center for the Improvement of
Early Reading Achievement, discusses children's development
of emergent writing [text and videostreaming feature].
- Successful
Early Childhood Education in an Imperfect World describes educational
strategies--including literacy practices--used with young children in four
Northwest schools: Cherry Valley Elementary School, in Polson, Montana;
Helen Baller Elementary School, in Camas, Washington; Harborview/Capital
Elementary School, in Juneau, Alaska; and Mary Harrison Primary School,
in Toledo, Oregon.
 CONTACTS:
Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA)
University of Michigan, School of Education
610 E. University Ave, Room 1600 SEB
Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1259
(734) 647-6940; fax (734) 763-1229
Contact: Elfrieda Hiebert, Director
E-mail: ciera@umich.edu
WWW: http://www.ciera.org/
ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication
Indiana University
Smith Research Center, Suite 150
Bloomington, IN 47408-2698
(800) 759-4723 or (812) 855-5847; fax (812) 855-4220
WWW: http://www.indiana.edu/~eric_rec/
International Reading Association
800 Barksdale Road
P.O. Box 8139
Newark, DE 19714-8139
(302) 731-1600; fax: (302) 731-1057
WWW: http://www.reading.org/
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
1509 16th St. N.W.
Washington, DC 20036-1426
(202) 232-8777 or (800) 424-2460; fax (202) 328-1846
Contact: Pat Spahr, Information Services Director
E-mail: pubaff@naeyc.org
WWW: http://www.naeyc.org/
National Institute for Literacy
1775 I St. N.W., Suite 730
Washington, DC 20006-2401
(202) 233-2025; fax (202) 233-2050
Contact: Andrew Hartman, Director
E-mail: jbehroozi@nifl.gov
WWW: http://www.nifl.gov
Whole Language Umbrella
National Council of Teachers of English
1111 West Kenyon Road
Urbana, IL 61801
(2l1) 328-3870 or (800) 369-6283; fax (217) 328-9645
E-mail: webmaster@ncte.org
WWW: http://www.ncte.org/wlu/
 References
This Critical Issue was written by Debra Johnson, a freelance writer
who also is a multiage resource teacher at Lincoln School in Mundelein,
Illinois, in collaboration with Elizabeth Sulzby, professor of education
at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and principal investigator at
the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement in Ann Arbor.
Date posted: 1999
Content and general comments: info@ncrel.org. Technical comments: pwaytech@contact.ncrel.org
Copyright © North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. All rights reserved.
Disclaimer and copyright information.
|
